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J. Hopkins, Carcinogenicity of carrageenan, Food Cosmet. Toxicol., 1981, 19, 779–788 CrossRef CAS PubMed. As a biodegradable polysaccharide, κCar has excellent film-forming features [ 17, 18]. However, similar to most polysaccharide-based films, plain κCar films have some limitations due to their inherent hydrophilic nature that negatively affects their mechanical and water barrier properties as compared with normal synthetic polymers [ 19]. Numerous physical and chemical techniques have been developed to obtain desirable film properties. Blending with polymers [ 20], reinforcing with nanomaterials [ 21], or layering with other polymer films [ 22] can remarkably enhance the film properties of carrageenans. Kappa forms strong, rigid gels in the presence of potassium ions, and reacts with dairy proteins. It is sourced mainly from Kappaphycus alvarezii. [10]
The viscosity of κCar solution at 75 °C was determined using a Brookfield DV-C Viscometer operating at 50 rpm with spindle #62. (Brookfield, Middleboro, MA, USA). In brief, 1.5% ( w/ v) κCar solution (in distilled water) was prepared by boiling in a microwave oven for 8 min. The hot solution was then placed in a 75 °C water bath pot insulated for 30 min [ 51]. Apparent viscosity was measured using a Brookfield Synchrolectric Viscometer (USA) as described by Zhao et al. [ 52]. A hybrid technology in which seaweed is treated heterogeneously as in the semirefined process exists, but alcohol or high salt levels are used to inhibit dissolution. This process is often used on South American seaweeds and gives some of the cost benefits of semirefined processing, while allowing a wider range of seaweeds to be processed, however, the naturally low cellulose levels in some South American seaweeds allow them to be heterogeneously processed and still be sold under the EU refined specification. Extracted from red seaweeds, carrageenans are naturally occurring polysaccharides that provide gelation, viscosity, and structure to a variety of food applications.
Carrageenan Production Using Various Extraction Methods
The gelling and gel melting temperature of κCar were measured at shear deformation by using the TA instrument TRIOS rheometer and the modified method of Derkach et al. [ 54]. Temperature scanning was performed from 20 °C to 80 °C, followed by 80 °C to 20 °C at a scan rate of 2 °C/min, an amplitude of deformation γ = 1%, and a frequency ω = 6.28 c −1. The diameter of the cone was 40 mm, the angle between the cone and plate was 1 grad, and the gap between the cone top and the plate was 0.1 mm. Estevez JM, Ciancia M, Cerezo AS (2000) The system of low-molecular-weight carrageenans and agaroids from the room-temperature-extracted fraction of Kappaphycus alvarezii. Carbohydr Res 325:287–299 Biotic variables have also been shown to impact carrageenan yield in seaweeds. One of the challenges in seaweed production is regulating epiphytes in farms, which can be detrimental to the overall production. Due to the open nature of the water, other algae have numerous opportunities to travel with the current and adhere themselves as competitors to seaweed that has grown. Epiphytes and diseases are two major environmental factors that can influence the development, output, and carrageenan content of K. alvarezii ( Syamsuddin et al., 2019). Suboptimal culture conditions, such as low light intensity, low salinity (below 20ppt), and high temperature (above 35°C), can lead to the development of “ice–ice” disease, which is frequently associated with the growth of epiphytes on the seaweed and can result in lower production or crop failure ( Valderrama et al., 2013).
Yegappan R, Selvaprithiviraj V, Amirthalingam S, Jayakumar R (2018) Carrageenan based hydrogels for drug delivery, tissue engineering and wound healing. Carbohydr Polym 198:385–400 Liberman, P. (2012). Allergicreaction to ice cream containing kernel oil, locust bean, and carrageenan:Availability of serum-specific ige testing to these potential allergens.Retrieved from Impact Investment for a Business Venture for Community-Based Seaweed Farming in Northern Palawan, Philippines (PDF). Blue Economy Impact Investment East Asia & Partnerships in Environmental Management for the Seas of East Asia. 2017 . Retrieved 8 February 2021.
Carrageenan in Food and Medical Applications
Healthline has strict sourcing guidelines and relies on peer-reviewed studies, academic research institutions, and medical associations. We avoid using tertiary references. You can learn more about how we ensure our content is accurate and current by reading our editorial policy. Gel strength was determined using the method described by Lee et al. [ 50]. In brief, 100 mL of hot κCar solution dissolved in 1.5% ( w/ v) water containing 0.2 g of KCl was poured into a Petri dish with 30 mm diameter and 21–22 mm depth and then allowed to gel at room temperature for 15 h. Gel strength was measured by the load (g/cm 2) causing a cylindrical plunger (1 cm 2 cross-section) to suddenly break the gel.
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